techne, was used for art and science. Plato gave his account of
knowledge on the basis of an analysis of the knowledge of
cobblers, carpenters, players of musical instruments, etc.,
pointing out that their art (so far as it was not mere routine)
involved an end, mastery of material or stuff worked upon,
control of appliances, and a definite order of procedure--all of
which had to be known in order that there be intelligent skill or
art.
Doubtless the fact that children normally engage in play and work
out of school has seemed to many educators a reason why they
should concern themselves in school with things radically
different. School time seemed too precious to spend in doing
over again what children were sure to do any way. In some social
conditions, this reason has weight. In pioneer times, for
example, outside occupations gave a definite and valuable
intellectual and moral training. Books and everything concerned
with them were, on the other hand, rare and difficult of access;
they were the only means of outlet from a narrow and crude
environment. Wherever such conditions obtain, much may be said
in favor of concentrating school activity upon books. The
situation is very different, however, in most communities to-day.
The kinds of work in which the young can engage, especially in
cities, are largely anti-educational. That prevention of child
labor is a social duty is evidence on this point. On the other
hand, printed matter has been so cheapened and is in such
universal circulation, and all the opportunities of intellectual
culture have been so multiplied, that the older type of book work
is far from having the force it used to possess.
But it must not be forgotten that an educational result is a by-
product of play and work in most out-of-school conditions. It is
incidental, not primary. Consequently the educative growth
secured is more or less accidental. Much work shares in the
defects of existing industrial society -- defects next to fatal
to right development. Play tends to reproduce and affirm the
crudities, as well as the excellencies, of surrounding adult
life. It is the business of the school to set up an environment
in which play and work shall be conducted with reference to
facilitating desirable mental and moral growth. It is not enough
just to introduce plays and games, hand work and manual
exercises. Everything depends upon the way in which they are
employed.
2. Available Occupations. A bare catalogue of the list of
activities which have already found their way into schools
indicates what a rich field is at hand. There is work with
paper, cardboard, wood, leather, cloth, yarns, clay and sand, and
the metals, with and without tools. Processes employed are
folding, cutting, pricking, measuring, molding, modeling,
pattern-making, heating and cooling, and the operations
characteristic of such tools as the hammer, saw, file, etc.
Outdoor excursions, gardening, cooking, sewing, printing,
book-binding, weaving, painting, drawing, singing, dramatization,
story-telling, reading and writing as active pursuits with social
aims (not as mere exercises for acquiring skill for future use),
in addition to a countless variety of plays and games, designate